Research Paper Essay Example for Free

Research Paper Essay Sibley’s English 1302 Research Paper Submission Guidelines RESEARCH PAPER: * The research paper must be 1500-2000 words in length (excluding the Works Cited page), and must be typed according to MLA format guidelines for style and documentation. Type Word Count on last page of paper (before the Works Cited page). * A minimum of 1 primary (literary) source and 3 secondary sources must be used in the actual writing of the paper. * The paper must conform to one of the three options provided by the prompt, and be written about approved literary works. The paper must be organized in alternating pattern (by criteria and not by literary work). * Have a descriptive title WHAT TO SUBMIT: Submit the following documents in a folder with your name and section# legibly printed on it. 1. A clean copy of final paper and works cited page. 2. Complete photocopies of any short stories not in the anthology OR a page with links to electronic copies. PLEASE NOTE: Research Projects are due at the beginning of class on the date found in your revised tentative course calendar. Your paper must be attached to an email sent to me by 11:59pm the evening of day the hard copy of the paper is due. Remember that if you do not do this—I cannot assign any credit to your paper, even if you turned in the hard copy. LATE PENALTIES: 5% Hard copy turned in on due date, but later than 5 minutes after the beginning of class. 10% per calendar day, up until 3 days after the due date, after which I will no longer accept papers, and no credit will be assigned. Dr. Sibley’s English 1302 Research Paper Evaluation Rubric Student Name amp; Section # _________________________________________________ Paper Grade (20% of Course Grade): ________ NOTE WELL: To receive a minimum grade of â€Å"C,† the responses to all of the following criteria must be â€Å"Yes. † ____________________________________________________________________________ FORMAT * MLA Format (double-spaced, 1† margins, etc. ) Yes / No * Works Cited Page provided Yes / No * Works Cited Page conforms to MLA guidelines Yes / No * Internal Citations in correct form Yes / No Sources properly introduced before initial use of them Yes / No * Direct quotations integrated properly into paper Yes / No * 1500 word minimum Yes / No STYLE * Paper is written from a 3rd person, objective point of view. Yes / No * Paper is written in literary present tense. Yes / No * Paper is free from numerous, distracting small errors. Yes / No * Diction and tone are appropriate for an academic paper. Yes / No * The reader is not hampered by confusi ng or awkwardly constructed sentences. Yes / No * There are no serious grammatical errors. Yes / No CONTENT * Paper has an arguable thesis related to literary elements of short stories, and develops an argument which adequately supports it. Yes / No * Paper exhibits competent knowledge of its primary sources. Yes / No * Paper exhibits correct use of literary vocabulary and conventions. Yes / No * Paper makes use of at least 3 secondary sources. Yes / No * Paper is well organized in alternating pattern. Yes / No * Paper comes to a logical conclusion which is clearly related to the thesis. Yes/ No

Life Is a Race Essay Example for Free

Life Is a Race Essay Family as a Primary Group Social Problems Garelick August 2010 Family plays an important role in the life of every person and society as a whole. It is no surprise that at every new stage of development in our society, with every revaluation of values, the interest in the issues of family, morality and spirituality spikes. At the present time, in the complicated environments through which we weave our lives, the family remains a unique mediator between the interests of the individual and society and is in the epicenter of a major social upheaval. The transition to current market relations and with them the related apathy, and with the mpoverishment of the general population drastically came the turnaround in the view affecting the well-being of our families and their stability and potential for proper upbringing of the young. These, along with many other social instabilities, have led to a crisis of family values. The consequences of this crisis are bifurcations between the generations, the prevalence of reduced lifetime fertility and the growing number of single parents in the United States. If marriage, parenthood and kinship are what constitute family relations, at the present time we are witnessing a decay of this little tiny trinity. The problem is complicated by the fact that at present time, the institution of marriage is going through a transitional period. There is a certain destruction of the old traditional values of marriage, and the new have yet to be formed. Marriage and family are increasingly becoming more about individuals and their need for intimate satisfaction and informal communication, and less about structure and support of one another. Let us pinpoint and define Just where the family lays its essence within the complicated world of social institutions and in which groups, as defined by our text. In a broad sense, the concept of a social group is any social association of people, anything from peer groups to a population of a particular country. In sociology, this concept is used in a narrower sense as any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis (Schaefer, 2009, p. 107). In general, members of a society feel like they belong to a group, and are also perceived by others as members of said group. To analyze the social structure of a society there must be items explored that ppear in all elementary parts of the given society, which incorporate all of the social perspectives. For this, I have chosen what is generally accepted to be the primary group (Schaefer, 2009, p. 110). The most successful definition, and essentially creation of the term, was created by Charles Horton Cooley who coined the term o refer to a small group characterized by intimate, tace-to-tace association and cooperation (Scnaeter, 2 p. 110). In other words, primary groups are those in which individuals have personal interaction with one another. For example, classmates can be members of a primary roup, and the rest of the student body would then be members of a secondary group. From a social perspective of a functionalist for the normal operation of the human society we must consolid ate certain types of social relations so that they become mandatory for members of a particular social group (Schaefer, 2009, p. 4). This primarily refers to those social relations in which, in order to obtain entry, members of a certain group must satisfy the most vital requirements needed for the successful functioning of the given group as an integrated social unit. For example, or the production of material comforts, people tend to perpetuate and secure a level of financial cushioning; this is also done for the upbringing of children, for unstrained family relationships, as well as for education and training for everyone involved. A symbolic interactionist would view the family process as a consolidation of social relations and a way to establish a system of roles and statuses, prescribing certain rules of conduct in a social network, and in defining a system of sanctions in case of a default by any of the individuals in the process of living out and following he given rules of conduct (Schaefer, 2009, p. 16/111). Social roles, statuses and sanctions are implemented in the form of social institutions that define sustainable patterns of behavior, ideas and incentives. Social institutions are organized patterns of beliefs and behavior centered on basic social needs, such as replacing personnel in the family setting (Schaefer, 2009, p. 113). Social institutions dictate how ideas and goals are perceived and defined by the system of standard social values, such as patterns of public behavior and the complicated systems of various social ties, i. e. he sets of roles and statuses through which a range of behavior is carried out and kept within certain limits. So, within the concepts of social institution and social group there is a significant internal difference. While the social group, whether primary or secondary, is a collection of interacting individuals, the social institution is a system of social relationships and social norms that exist in a particular area of human activity. However, it should be noted that these concepts are inseparable from each other, because a social institution is a set of relationships and systems of behavior, and is etermined ultimately by the needs of people. In other words, although the social institution creates social relationships and norms, there are people for whom these relationships are linked and carried out; the family is the perfect example of a social group that puts the rules in to practice. People organize themselves into different groups using institutional rules. Each institution includes many social groups that provide the overall institutional behavior. Consequently, institutions and social groups are interrelated, and it would be completely meaningless to separate these otions and study them separately. So, based on the foregoing, I conclude that the family is a social phenomenon that combines the features of a social institution and a primary group. The idea of the modern family arises from the desire to satisfy purely personal needs and interests ot individuals. According to structure-tunctionalists, tn patterns of reciprocal obligations among people and between structures of people and the greater society define family. The greater society has needs that must be met; in order to meet those needs, society creates subsets of people structured to elp meet the needs of society. The family is one of those structures. The definition of family changes as the needs of the greater society change. When the greater society needs rapid population growth † after a time of war, for example † societys definition of family emphasizes heterosexual bonding, procreation and child rearing; but when the greater society is faced with over-population and the need to limit population growth, societys definition of family may be modified to include homosexual bonding and may be more supportive of childless couples (Diem, 1997, As a primary group, the family connects the personal needs of the public interest, adapting to social relations, norms, and values that are accepted in our society. In other words, the familys personal needs are sorted and organized on the basis of accepted societal values, norms and behavior patterns and, eventually, acquire the character of the social functions such as the regulation of sex, procreation, socialization, emotional satisfaction, status, safety, and economic security. From what I have gathered, the definition of family from a conflict perspective has een a highly discouraged and slightly controversial subject since family is considered a sacred institution. As a result, support for research on conflict in the family has been discouraged (Werner-Wilson, 1993, p. 6). And it would seem that a social institution of such prominence would not have a dark side from which can leap and bound toward freedom suppressed minorities. But for the sake of this essay, let us assume that if Karl Marx were to look at the institution of marriage, he would wave his well bearded nugget side to side disapprovingly. The idea of a traditional family as roots in male supremacy, and suppression of womens rights. If only Karl Marx was not a man of the nineteenth century, but lived in present time. The ideal family includes: 1) a set of social values (love, for children), 2) public procedure (for the care of children, family rights and obligations), and 3) interlacing of roles and statuses (status and role of husband, wife, child, teenager, mother-in- law, brothers, etc. ), with the aid of which the family exists. Thus, the institution of family is a collection of certain bonds, rules and roles, which in practice are manifested into the activities of this individual primary group. We all know how great the importance of family is in everyday life, society and even in the political arena. After all, it is the family of each person that provides them with an inexhaustible source of love, devotion and support. The family lays foundation for morality, spirituality and tolerance. And it is the family that is recognized as the major reason for why cultural beliefs survive, are inherited and passed from generation to generation. It is a prerequisite for socialization and the lifelong study of social roles, basic education, skills, and behavior. A healthy, strong family is the basis of stability and prosperity of any society. The family is the foundation of all social institutions vis- ¤-vis the development of the family is ultimately the progress of society as a whole. But the world does not stand still, in its ever-changing atmosphere social institutions take on new meanings and the ideas ot marriage and tamily change witn the times. Marriage has ceased to be life-long and is losing its legitimacy: divorce, single parent families, broken hearts and bank accounts used to be exceptions, and are now becoming the norm. The vast majority of professionals such as philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, economists, and students of the modern school of thought, all agree that the family is going through a real crisis. The strength of family is being tested under the weight of total catastrophic failure that our society is facing; the deep nature of which is characterized by our flailing civilization. As a primary element of society, it gives a miniature image of the same contradictions that are inherent in our cultures. One of the most remarkable properties of the family is its flexible and dynamic orm of structural organization. Thanks to the universal ability to adapt to the peculiarities of the ever-changing world, the family has developed an enormous variety of types of family structures, sometimes adapting itself beyond recognition, but while keeping unchanged its essence as a social institution and a primary group. In addition, the family is created to meet any number and range of essential human needs. The family, therefore, in contrast to other social groups defines the very meaning of integrity and adaptability. Because of its multifunctional ability to ameliorate the physiological and sychological human needs, and its inclination toward self-organization and self- development the idea of family is able to combine all personal, collective and public interests into one little amiable ball with a gigantic potential for explosive cataclysm. The world is not static, it changes, and with it change its social institutions, and thus the family. Clearly, the family today, like society in general, is in deep cow dung. The strength of the family, its charm and vitality lie in the integrity that is inherent in the family idea and in the definition of the primary social group and social nstitution. The present era in which we have had this great pleasure of existing is different from any other in recorded history. Todays complex economic and social situations require a modern approach, which can often cause stress and depression, which have already become integral parts of our existence. Today is the time when the need is particularly great in having a safe retreat, a place of spiritual comfort. This safe retreat can be our family, its stability and strength can be built to withstand the widespread variability of the painful world. The family is something worth elebrating, and in celebrating ourselves we can go on further to build everything else that will try to destroy it.

The Benefits Of Marijuana Legalization

The Benefits Of Marijuana Legalization The economic recession that began around January 2008 has taking its toll on several fronts. The recession has affected the U.S. labor markets as seen in the rapidly rising unemployment and underemployment issues. U.S. jobs have declined by over 5 million over the past 12 months and the unemployment rate has risen to over 9%. The recession has also caused a steep decline in state tax revenues. As a result states are beginning to see very large budgets deficits. States are struggling to find other ways to shore up the loss in revenue that is needed to support public services. California, the Golden State has reported a $20 billion budget deficit. The state is currently spending $400 to $ 600 million more a month that they are collecting in revenues. As the reality of the deficit becomes apparent to the leaders of California, the governor has asked for solutions to their problems. What you can expect generally is no taxes and terrible cuts, absolutely terrible cuts, said Governor Schwarzenegger to press secretary Aaron McLear. Were not going to get through the deficit we have without making some really tough decisions. (www.sacbee.com) House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, a San Francisco Democrat, and the states two Democratic U.S. senators have said new federal aid was unlikely, given that California has already received billions of dollars from the stimulus package.The federal government is not responsible for the state of Californias budget, and we look forward to hearing a sustainable plan for the state to get its house in order, a spokesman for Ms. Pelosi said after the budget was released Friday May 14, 2010. (www.wstj.com) While the state administration debates ways to reduce the large deficit one solution has been mentioned, the legalization of marijuana. It has been estimated that a legal market for marijuana could yield revenue of $1.5 to $2.5 billion a year. Total retail sales would result in a total economic impact of $8 to $13 billion a year. The state would also save over $160 million a year in law enforcement cost for arrests, prosecutions, and imprisonment. Additional benefits would arise from more sales taxes from spinoff markets such as smokehouses, industrial hemp facilities and larger amounts of tourism. (www.canorml.org) Over 1.6 million Californians have smoked marijuana within the past 30 days, according to the most recent National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, which found 5.6% of all Americans over the age of 12 are current marijuana users. According to the survey, one-third of this population, or 530,000 Californians are daily users. Taking this survey into consideration, the California administration believes there will be sufficient demand for this product. (www.canorml.org) California has now added the Tax Cannabis Act to its November ballot which will be to legalize the cultivation, possession, and recreational use of marijuana. So why not legalize marijuana? There are several moral arguments that need to be considered: rights, justice, utilitarianism, caring, virtue and Christianity before any decisions can be made. Rights Marijuana was banned by The Marijuana Tax Act of 1937 in the U.S. in 1937after 162 years of use. In 1937 Anslinger testified before Congress in favor of Marijuana Prohibition by saying: Marijuana is the most violence causing drug in the history of mankind. Most marijuana smokers are Negroes, Hispanics, Filipinos and entertainers. Their Satanic music, jazz and swing, result from marijuana usage. Marijuana causes white women to seek sexual relations with Negroes. (www.hempcar.org) Many supporters of legalization of marijuana believe that the prohibition laws were passed based on discrimination and lies therefore violating human rights. In general, a right is an individual entitlement to something. (pg 73, Velasquez) Rights are a powerful device according to Velasquez, when they are used to enable the individual to choose freely whether to pursue certain activities and to protect those choices. (pg 74) Prohibition will work great injury to the cause of temperance. It is a species of intemperance within itself, for it goes beyond the bounds of reason in that it attempts to control a mans appetite by legislation, and makes a crime out of things that are not crimes. A Prohibition law strikes a blow at the very principles upon which our government was founded. Abraham Lincoln (1809-65), U.S. President stated during a speech on the 18th of December 1840, to Illinois House of Representatives. Allowing the government to control what individuals freely choose to do when they pose no threat to their community than they are letting the government violate their basic constitutional rights. Justice The production, distribution, and use of marijuana is a criminal offense under the Controlled Drugs and Substance Act. Retributive justice refers to the just imposition of punishment and penalties on those who do wrong. (pg88, Velasquez) In 2007, police in Californian made over 60,000 felony and misdemeanor arrests of individuals possessing marijuana. If charged with possession of marijuana it will carry large penalties for offenders in the United States. The first offence could be a fine of $500 or up to 20 years imprisonment for third or more offences. These arrests create permanent criminal records that could disqualify individuals for schooling, student loans, housing and most importantly jobs. The cost of law enforcement of the marijuana laws in California contribute to the economic problem by over $150 million per year. (pg 97) So the moral question is: Does the crime fit the punishment? How fair is this action? These questions of distributive justice arise when different people put forth conflicting claims on societys benefits and burdens. (pg 88) Utilitarianism There are no arguments that there are a several side effects that come from smoking marijuana. The advocates for marijuana use believe the only side effect is it elevates the feeling of happiness. Jeremy Bentham states that, the theory which accepts as the fundamentals of morals, utility or the greatest happiness principle, holds that ones actions are right if those actions promote happiness and wrong if they produce negative effects. The happiness is intended to produce pleasure and not pain. (pg 62) This ethical theory insists that the desire for happiness motivates human conduct. Taking into consideration the utilitarian calculations, by using marijuana in the privacy of the individuals home serves to increase their pleasure or greatest happiness principle. The government, therefore, has no right to prohibit what is ethically justifiable conduct. On the other hand for those individuals who argue against legalizing of marijuana believe that the use is wrong because marijuana destroys brain cells and could also be a gateway drug to more lethal drugs and narcotics. These advocates have successfully enacted prohibition laws banning the use of marijuana. Utilitarians stress, however, these advocates are acting unethically because they are decreasing the greatest happiness principle covered in the shield of upholding what is an essentially contested concept (pg 60), namely, the common good. Utilitarianism is also the basis of the techniques of economic cost-benefits analysis. This type of analysis is used to determine whether its present and future economic benefits outweigh its present and future costs. (pg 63) The California administration believes that by legalizing marijuana they can tax it which will help eliminates the states budget deficit problems. This will also eliminate the $150 million dollars that are spent each year by enforcing the ban on marijuana. Caring Drugs that are deemed politically, socially, medically, or religiously unfit for recreational use are often banned. Ethic reasoning based on caring sees our communities and communal relationships as a fundamental value that should be preserved and maintained. (pg 103) The position on the legalization of marijuana is different for each individual. Those positions range from blanket prohibition to permitting use in small doses. Advocates believe that legalizing the drug would be a good thing because it forces manufactures to meet regulation guidelines just like the manufactures of cigarettes and alcoholic beverages. Currently legal drugs must have ingredients lists, warning labels and purity levels clearly stated on the containers. By providing a legal supply chain of the currently illegal drug the prices will fall which would theoretically lead to the collapse of the current illegal drug industry and also lead to a reduction in crimes committed by those illegal organizations. They also argue that there will be no change in the amount of demand for marijuana due to the inelasticity of the demand. On the other side of the argument, advocates believe the state should not be involved in the distribution of substances that are considered unhealthy. They believe it is the states job to protect each citizens health and not contribute to exposing them to risky items. These advocates truly care for their communities by exhibiting the virtues of concern and love. (pg 103) These advocates are very concerned that the marijuana use will be dangerous to others beside the user. They are worried that it will contribute to the rise in health costs, create more violence that is always accompanied with drug use and most importantly contribute to the neglect of children that is always seen in drug-addicted parents. Virtue The debate going on in California over legalization marijuana has been a very controversial issue. It has been debated by both advocating sides of the issue. The advocates for legalizing marijuana argue from Aristotles moral virtue point of view. A person lives according to reason, Aristotle argued, when the person knows and chooses reasonable middle ground in his actions and desires: Moral virtue is a mean between two vices, one of excess and the other of deficiency and it aims a hitting the mean in desires and actions.(pg 110) With respect to consumable goods, temperance the virtue of being reasonable by indulging the desire but not in excess. Marijuana advocates reason that as long as it is used only for recreational purposes and not abused there should be no issues from Aristotle point of view for not legalizing it. The advocates against legalizing marijuana argue from another moral virtue point of view. They argue that economic institutions or governmental administration make people greedy and large bureaucrat organizations make people less responsible. These organizations are morally defective because they tend to create morally defective individuals. (pg 113) These advocates fear that the State of California only concern is to fix its budget deficit problems at the expense of its citizen well being. Christianity The advocates against legalizing marijuana argue that the use of any mind-altering drug is morally and spiritually damaging therefore should be kept out of reach. The book of Galatians 5:19-21states, The acts of sinful nature are obvious: sexual immorality, impurity and debaucheryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦drunkenness, orgies, and the like. I warn you, as I did before, that those who live like this will not inherit the kingdom of heaven. Keeping this scripture in mind, by participating in these deeds of the flesh will excluded one from the kingdom of heaven. This scripture also proves that smoking marijuana would not be a good Christian activity one would want to participate in. The bible predicted that people would want to participate in bad behavior in a letter the apostle Paul wrote to Timothy in 2 Timothy 3:1-5 which states, There will be terrible times in the last days. People will be lovers of themselves, lovers of moneyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦without love, self control, not lovers of goodà ¢Ã¢â€ š ¬Ã‚ ¦lovers of pleasure, rather than lovers of God-having a form of godliness but denying its power. Have nothing to do with them. The argument is made that people will be lovers of the pleasures in life rather than lovers of God. The final argument is how can an individual focus on doing good works if their minds are clouded with marijuana smoke. On the side of the debate advocates for legalizing marijuana argue that the current laws are an invasion of individual rights to make their own moral decisions concerning what they do in their own homes. Prohibition is allowing the government to make moral decisions for individuals and not allowing ones to be morally accountable for their own actions. The scriptures do talk about keeping church and state separate in Luke 20:25 which states, He said to them, Then give to Caesar what is Caesars and to God what is Gods. Jesus also talked about this separating in John 15:19, If you belong to the world, it will love you as its own. As it is, you do not belong to the world, but I have chosen you. It is also argued that although marijuana is not directly mentioned in the bible it does talk about how God gave humans plants and herbs to use for food. Then God said, I give you every herb bearing [seed] plant on the face of the whole earth and every tree that has fruit with seed in it .They wil l be yours for food. (Genesis 1:29) The legalization of marijuana appears to have a lot of support in California. Activists believe that taxing marijuana production and sales would bail out the cash-strapped state. The point has been made that prohibition law has been a big disaster because it has wasted billions of dollars in law enforcement resources and made criminals out of normally law bidding citizens. There are on the other hand still a lot of activists that oppose decrimalizing marijuana. They argue that with recreational marijuana use comes impaired driving, crashes and injuries to innocent parties. Critics also worry social costs far outweigh the revenue it will bring in to the state. There are several measures that need to be met in order to grow support. First sales should not be outright legalized but regulated. Next the state would need to create laws to manage the production, distribution, and sales of marijuana. Finally marijuana should be managed and controlled using the guidelines the alcohol and toba cco industries follow.

The Methodology Of Biopsychology: Substance Abuse

The Methodology Of Biopsychology: Substance Abuse To understand addictive behavior, one must understand the brain; the pursuit of this understanding is a challenge with great rewards. Analyzing human behavior requires subjectivity, while the brain contains objective realities; this requires holistic approach for full comprehension. Three general types of methodological issues are prominent in research involving assessment of addiction: (1) the reliability and validity of self-report, collateral, and biological methods of assessing substance use, (2) the variability and episodic course of substance use disorders, and (3) the heterogeneity of individuals with substance use disorders. The history, explanation, pathways and methodologies of addiction are all complex and need to be studied in the scope of biopsychology in order to advance the understanding and treatment of all addictions. History Chemical dependency has been part of every society and each millennium has treated the problems that addiction brings with a methodology unique to the times. Historically, society has attempted to deal with addiction in a certain way (Scheier, 2009). Based in fear of all the unknowns associated with substance abuse, the legal system sent addicts to prison, society in general shunned them and treated them as misfits, and the mental health community confined them to mental health institutions. Today the current modality of treatment for those afflicted with substance abuse is to attempt some way to get them help in whatever area they need it. Basic research on substance abuse has been a public science since the 1930s, funded almost entirely by the U.S. federal government (Scheier). The popular experimentation with drugs in the mid-to-late 1960s raised many questions for which the traditional focus of Addiction Research Center had no answers (Smith, 2010). As a consequence, the field began to diversify and decentralize such that researchers had more pathways from which to choose. Research pathways emerged in behavioral and neuro- or psychopharmacology (Scheier, 2009). Meanwhile, substance abuse also took to the street, bringing researchers into the community. This brought about the emergence of four significant research areas: qualitative social research, epidemiology, treatment research, and research based on self-reports (Scheier). Definition of Addiction There are several definitions of addiction. All addictions have common denominators of being a complex illness characterized by intense, uncontrollable craving, along with compulsive behavior even in light of devastating consequences. (Pinel, 2009). These commonalities also include: symptoms of withdrawal, tolerance, a desire to cut down or stop use/behavior, the inability to stop or decrease usage, loss of employment, estranged families, and social contacts are lost due to the addiction. Addiction has many dimensions that disrupt several if not every aspect of an individuals life. In order to understand what addiction is a definition needs to be cleanly stated. Current neuroscientific research on substance abuse seeks to identify the cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate the transition from occasional, controlled drug use to the loss of behavioral control over drug seeking and drug-taking that defines chronic addiction (Edwards, 2005). Treatment Modalities Every individual is unique and each person can respond differently to treatment modalities. Professionals that work in the field of addiction and treatment should be trained in current trends in alternative treatments and especially those that have proven effective. In the study by Castel, Rush, Urbanoski and Toneatto, (2006) their results show how complex addictions are and the overlap with mental health issues or other biological disorders. This study was strong in their methodology, but the use of a screening tool might have increased the rate of reported symptoms. Their study did not indicate this to be of significance. Their study has opened the pathway for future research in biopsychology that will illuminate some pivotal points in the biological nature of cross addictions with psychiatric issues and substance abuse indicators. Medication and behavioral therapy, especially when combined, are important elements of an overall therapeutic process that often begins with detoxification, followed by treatment and relapse prevention. Easing withdrawal symptoms can be important in the initiation of treatment; preventing relapse is necessary for maintaining its effects (Fitzgerald McCarty, 2009). Sometimes, as with other chronic conditions, episodes of relapse may require a return to prior treatment components. A continuum of care that includes a holistic treatment program that addresses all aspects of an individuals life, including medical and mental health services and follow-up options can be crucial to a persons success in achieving and maintaining a drug-free lifestyle (Scheier, 2009). Methodologies for Study Research in this field has produced a host of differing theories and models to describe the factors influencing drug use. The enormous amount of literature is impressive, yet overwhelming and often contradictory (Edwards Cobb, 2010). The focus of this bibliography has been to assess the current state of substance abuse with respect to the focus of current research attention, and to identify knowledge gaps. Despite the limitations of the existing material, this view provides a useful platform to deepen and broaden the scope of biopsychological research. This section will describe the studies in general and then will provide synopsis of the common theories that are present throughout each study as well as how each study stands alone. Each individual study will be described and the conclusions presented, this will be brief and to the point. There will be a more detailed discussion that will take into consideration all of the studies presented. The discussion will include the strengths and limitations of current methodologies, biology, similarities and differences with regard to the general theory of addiction and how the addiction pathways are formed as well as possible treatments. Finally, this section will address what needs to be considered in the future and what the studies brought up that needs to be examined in order to better understand and offer some solutions for future studies as well as to offer the reader options for future study and research. The history, explanation, pathways and methodologies of addiction are all complex and need to be studied in the scope of biopsychology in order to advance the understanding and treatment of all addictions. Addiction has been a part of every society, socio-economic class, race, and gender and discriminates against none. There are a variety of theories of addiction as well as treatments; some founded in theory and others founded self-reports. The ability to treat and understand addiction rests in the hands of competent clinicians willing to examine possibilities that are not commonly thought of to be related to addiction. Understanding the biopsychology of addiction will aid in eliminating addiction for future generations to come. Annotated Bibliography Castel, S., Rush, B., Urbanoski, K., Toneatto, T. (2006). Overlap of clusters of psychiatric symptoms among clients of a comprehensive addiction treatment service. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 20(1), 28-35. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.20.1.28. This article describes the prevalence and overlap of psychiatric symptoms among 2,784 clients of the outpatient programs at a comprehensive addictions treatment facility. The psychiatric symptoms were assessed by a computer-based questionnaire, and the analysis focused on the overlap of symptom clusters (multimorbidity) and their relation to selected intake variables known to be predictors of treatment outcome. This study will help emphasize the need for a detailed customized treatment approach. Fitzgerald, J., McCarty, D. (2009). Understanding attitudes toward use of medication in substance abuse treatment: A multilevel approach. Psychological Services, 6(1), 74-84. doi:10.1037/a0013420 This study used a treatment unit survey for individual and organizational variables that influence attitudes toward use of naltrexone, methadone, and buprenorphine for the treatment of alcohol and drug disorders. Previous research has not considered both sets of influences simultaneously. Hierarchical linear modeling tested the contribution of individual and organizational variables with data from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network treatment unit and workforce surveys (n = 2,269 staff nested within 247 treatment units). Individual-level variables consistently had more influence on attitudes, but a unique blend of variables existed for each medication. One predictor, support for psychiatric medications, influenced attitudes across all medications. Staff attitudes toward addiction medications varied significantly between treatment units. This study can be a strong research variable to establish the need for psychobiology to be an active participant for addiction treatment. The appropriate use of addiction medications was evidenced by their results. Ducci, F., Goldman, D. (2008). Genetic approaches to addiction: Genes and alcohol. Addiction, 103(9), 1414-1428. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02203.x. This study examines the genetic basis for addiction, alcoholism in particular. The study is a literature review that focused on the genetic basis of alcoholism. The results of the review show that alcoholic genes are acting at the pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic levels. There has been major progress in gene identification in recent years, using intermediate phenotypes such as task-related brain activation, whole genome association studies, gene environment studies, gene effects studies and the genome wide analysis. This study finds that the genetic basis for alcoholism and other addictions is unknown, as further studies are conducted; they are likely to find a link. This study will be used to demonstrate that addiction can be tied to genes and that biopsychology will play an important part in the future of addiction. Edwards, G. (2005). Addiction Biology goes fast forward. Addiction, 100(1), doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01109.x. This article examines the new leadership established at the Society for the Study of Addiction. Included are a variety of new appointments, as well as newly created ones. This article will be used to demonstrate the preparing of the addiction community to prepare for studied in biopsychology and their acceptance and increased understanding of the matter. This article will further show that addiction study is needed and that infrastructure is being created in order to provide for this new understanding of addiction. Edwards, S. Koob G. (2010). Neurobiology of deregulated motivational systems in drug addiction Future Neurology, 5(3), 393-410. doi: 2034674321. This study examines Neurobiological mechanisms for negative reinforcement, which mean that participating in an addiction, in this study drug addiction, and it alleviates a negative emotional state, and this involves changes in the brain and leads to forebrain stress. This stress may contribute to changes in the reinforcement mechanisms in the brain that are associated with addiction. The points of the intersection between the positive and negative motivational areas in the brain may drive addiction and may provide an increased understanding of the neurobiological substrate for therapeutic intervention. This article will be used to further examine that addiction is related to biopsychology and that determining the reinforcement centers in the brain will aid in understanding the behavior associated with addiction. Fitzgerald, J., McCarty, D. (2009). Understanding attitudes toward use of medication in substance abuse treatment: A multilevel approach. Psychological Services, 6(1), 74-84. doi:10.1037/a0013420. This study used a treatment unit survey for individual and organizational variables that influence attitudes toward use of naltrexone, methadone, and buprenorphine for the treatment of alcohol and drug disorders. Previous research has not considered both sets of influences simultaneously. Hierarchical linear modeling tested the contribution of individual and organizational variables with data from the National Drug Abuse Treatment Clinical Trials Network treatment unit and workforce surveys (n = 2,269 staff nested within 247 treatment units). Individual-level variables consistently had more influence on attitudes, but a unique blend of variables existed for each medication. One predictor, support for psychiatric medications, influenced attitudes across all medications. Staff attitudes toward addiction medications varied significantly between treatment units. This study can be a strong research variable to establish the need for psychobiology to be an active participant for addiction treatment. The appropriate use of addiction medications was evidenced by their results. Fortuna, J. (2010). Sweet preference, sugar addiction and the familial history of alcohol dependence: Shared neural pathways and genes. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 147-51. This study examines the fact that many people who are addicted to drugs and alcohol also have a sweet preference, particularly those with a high sucrose concentration. This study further examines that some people who have a high consumption of sugar rich foods and drinks demonstrates the release of euphoric endorphins and dopamine in the same way that alcohol and drugs do. This study asserts that the neurobiological pathways are the same for sugar and drug addiction. Craving, tolerance, withdrawal and sensitization have been documented in both human and animal studies. This study goes on to show that there is a cross sensitization between sugar addiction and narcotic dependence. This study also demonstrates that the biological children of alcoholic parents, particularly fathers, have a strong sweet preference and that may show up in eating disorders in later life. This study will be used to demonstrate that addiction can be determined through genes and can manifest in different addiction choices. Gillman, A., Kosobud, A., Timberlake, W. (2010). Effects of multiple daily nicotine administrations on pre- and post-nicotine circadian activity episodes in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 124(4), 520-531. doi:10.1037/a0020272. This study has shown that nicotine that is administered with an entertaining activity and that it affected food intake and that throughout the pre and post dose that there was a relation to the increase in the desire for the activity and as well as the nicotine. This study will be used to demonstrate that cross addiction and transference can happen in addiction resulting in the way the brain synthesizes entertainment and addiction. It will be used to demonstrate that there are addiction areas in the brain and that stimulation of one can increase other areas. Haber, J. R., Bucholz, K. K., Jacob, T., Grant, J. D., Scherrer, J. F., Sartor, C. E., Duncan, A. R. Heath, A. (2010, September). Effect of paternal alcohol and drug dependence on offspring conducts disorder: Gene-Environment interplay. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs 71 (5); 652-663. ISSN: 1937-1888 This article discussed current research on substance-use disorders and externalizing disorders that frequently present simultaneously, as well as in families across generations. Researchers examined the role of genetic and environmental influences in the relationship between paternal histories of drug dependence or alcohol dependence and offspring conduct disorder using an offspring-of-twins design. The methodology used male twins from the Vietnam Era Twin Registry, their offspring, and mothers of the offspring. The study was difficult to follow, but yielded results that indicated genetic risk associated with both paternal drug-dependence and paternal alcohol-dependence histories predicted offspring conduct-disorder risk, but only risk associated with paternal drug-dependence history was mitigated by having a low-risk environment. This study will be used to demonstrate a significant gene-environment interaction, indicating a strong need for further biopsychological research in this area. Lee, P., Lee, D., Lee, P.. (2010). 2010: U.S. Drug and Alcohol Policy, Looking Back and Moving Forward. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 99-114. This article demonstrates the different perspectives in the usage of the disease model of addiction indicating the influence of The United States drug policy. This article spans various areas of substance abuse research with the focus on new perspectives for future research and changes to the drug policy of the United States. This article will be used to show where the future of biopsychology and substance abuse research is headed. Pinel, J. P. J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-205-54892-7. This book covers a variety of biopsychology topics in depth as well as anatomy of the brain. This book will be used as a reference to explain the tests used for the determination of behavior and brain connectivity. It will be used to describe the parts of the brain that are related to addiction. It will also be used to explain how addiction works in the brain. Scheier, L. M. (ed) (2009). Multiple paths to partial truths: A history of drug etiology. The Handbook of Drug Etiology: Theory, Methods, and Empirical Findings. American Psychological Association. Washington, DC. ISBN: 978-1-4338-0446-5 This handbook covers the complexities of personality, genetic, environmental, and cultural influences on behavior that are difficult to dissect or treat as independent forces. This volume covers this dynamic field comprehensively. A team of researchers presents dissimilar theoretical perspectives and viewpoints on complex issues ranging from causation to consequences and including a rich discussion of prevention practices and how they influence policy. The editor and contributors show the origins of the field of drug use etiology in clinical work with addicts, detail the history of the field and examine the interaction of epidemiology and etiology. This book will be used to examine substance abuse causations such as peer pressure, community, genetics, race, and age. This will help determine the ways in which drug use etiology links with biopsychology. Smith, D. (2010).The evolution of addiction medicine and its San Francisco roots. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 42(2), 199-201. This article examines how addiction has evolved from its roots in San Francisco. It examines a variety of problems that are caused from drug addiction and the problems that it causes to society. This article will be used as a historical reference and as a general reference to the history of drugs in general. Addiction research has attempted to keep up with the rapid progression. Sofuoglu, M., Sugarman, D., Carroll, K. (2010). Cognitive function as an emerging treatment target for marijuana addiction. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 18(2), 109-119. doi:10.1037/a0019295. Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance in the world, and demand for effective treatment is increasing. However, abstinence rates following behavioral therapies have been modest, and there are no effective pharmacotherapies for the treatment of cannabis addiction. We propose a novel research agenda and a potential treatment strategy, based on observations that both acute and chronic exposure to cannabis are associated with dose-related cognitive impairments, most consistently in attention, working memory, verbal learning, and memory functions. These impairments are not completely reversible upon cessation of marijuana use, and moreover may interfere with the treatment of marijuana addiction. Therefore, targeting cognitive impairment associated with chronic marijuana use may be a promising novel strategy for the treatment of marijuana addiction. Preclinical studies suggest that medications enhancing the cholinergic transmission may attenuate cannabis-induced cognitive impai rments, but these cognitive enhancing medications have not been examined in controlled human studies. Preliminary evidence from individuals addicted to other drugs suggests that computerized cognitive rehabilitation may also have utility to improve cognitive function in marijuana users. Future clinical studies optimally designed to measure cognitive function as well as drug use behavior would be needed to test the efficacy of these treatments for marijuana addiction.

Analyze Role Of Mentor Developing And Delivering Teaching Nursing Essay

Analyze Role Of Mentor Developing And Delivering Teaching Nursing Essay The role of the mentor in nursing is a crucial one and should not be undertaken lightly, it is a privilege with much responsibility, as the mentor is accountable for their own and their mentorees performance. It is a privilege as a professional nurse mentor to be able to help a student realize their potential and rewarding to see them putting the theory they have learned into practice and helping them get the most out of their placement. The role of the mentor cannot be over-emphasized; learning experience in the clinical setting ensures that the nurses and midwives of the future are fit to practice (RCN, 2007) and in this way the role is central to patient safety. Most registered nurses in the NHS will be expected to assume the role of mentor and with 50% of pre-registration nursing programs embedded in practice (RCN, 2007), with resources becoming less and less and the NHS becoming busier and busier, practice learning and mentoring play an increasingly important role. Mentorees nee d to be able to rely on the consistency, competency and superior knowledge and professionalism of the mentor to guide their learning, assess their competence and thus effectively act as gate keepers to the profession (Duffy, 2004) and as such is an extremely important role. The following essay will draw upon types of leadership to enhance the skills of the mentor and improve the relationship between the mentor and mentoree. The first question that needs addressing, is what is a mentor?. There exists many definitions, and the term mentoring has been used interchangeably with, preceptor, coach, supervisor and teacher (Morton-Cooper Palmer, 2000). Price (2004) defined it as an experienced professional friend, charged with the teaching, guidance and assessment of a learner in practice. The NMC considered it as, a mandatory requirement for pre-registration nursing and midwifery students (NMC, 2006a). Some have defined mentoring as essentially an evidence-based intervention that inspires confidence and innovation, and encourages continuous professional development, (Jakubic, 2004). In addition mentoring can be both informal and formal; informal mentoring is often used as an adjunct to the more formal process of supervision and is based on a agreed plan of action to help the mentor achieve realistic goals or address specific problem areas. Whereas formal mentoring involves a structured and time managed proces s with clearly set objectives to be realised in a timely manner (Tourigny Pilich, 2005). The role of the mentor primarily is to enable the student to understand the theory and its application in in the clinical context; the mentoree must learn to put theory and knowledge and be able to apply what they have learned to clinical practice. This process involves among others, assessing, evaluating and providing constructive feedback. It also involves assisting the mentoree in developing the ability to constructively reflect upon their practice and experiences and importantly be able to learn from this reflection (Schon, 1983). It is important to note that in order to facilitate reflection the mentor themselves must be able to self-reflect. The mentor must also have adequate knowledge and skills in order to integrate theory and practice effectively, (Eraut, 2004). The RCN (2007) in their toolkit for mentors draw attention to the obvious but crucial need for the mentors to be fit for effe ctive practice themselves and to have the depth and breadth of learning to be awarded a diploma or degree (RCN, 2007). The RCN also states that, a mentor is a role model and as such should be aware of their own practice and how it impacts the mentorees; the imitation of bad habits is not desirable. The mentor should be able to encourage, motivate and help the mentoree to improve skills and practice thereby increasing their confidence. It is also important that the mentor has the confidence in their own practice and knowledge in order for them to instill confidence in the mentorees. Mentors also need to have the experience and knowledge to identify learning points in practice, for example where something could have been done in a more productive manner or where an important mistake has been made; which is partly the reason for mentors being required to have at least one year experience post-registration. This can only really be achieved if the mentor has the interpersonal and communi cation skills required to build a professional relationship in which honest, objective and constructive feedback is received and given. It is also crucial for effective practice learning, that mentorees need time and attention from their mentors (the RCN, 2007, state that 40% of the time should be spent with the mentoree).Turner (2001) describes the pressures on clinical staff and the impact of high patient turnover resulting in little time to devote to the supervision of students; an issue that is exacerbated by the increasing demands on the available practice placements (Bennett 2003). This however is not set in stone as different people have different rates and styles of learning; what works for one does not necessarily work for all. The competent mentor should be able to discern the appropriate approach for each mentorees learning style and should not impose theire preferred way of learning and mentoring on the mentoree. Learning styles include; activists, those that are very active in their learning, reflectors, those that stand back and think over what they do and what others do, the theorists, they approach le arning from an almost empirical standpoint, they reject everything that does not have evidence and do not like subjectivity (Bayley, Chambers Donovan, 2004). The fourth style of learning (according to Honey Mumford, 2000) is that of the pragmatist; the pragmatist likes solving problems , likes to learn through trying new approaches and getting feedback, (Bayley, Chambers Donovan, 2004). Therefore if the mentoree has been identified as largely an activist then emphasis could be placed on learning through action, giving them new challenges often enough ensuring they do not get bored whilst making sure they learn and retain that learning, from each challenge and experience. It is down to the skills and competence of the mentor to detect the mentorees learning style and then tailor their learning plans, structures/ strategies to meet the needs of the mentoree. As well as interpersonal and professional leadership styles the mentor (and the mentoree) must both keep thorough records of the mentorees progress. Research has shown that innovation was taking place in practice based learning but it was not recognized because there was a lack of formal documentation (Aston et al, 2005). Effective and comprehensive records have to be completed so that the mentor can see how the mentoree is progressing and what they still need to work on. Similarly it is also important that the mentoree keeps thorough notes of what they should be doing, what they have found difficult and what they are still to do. A corollary to the need for thorough, comprehensive records is that of assessment which the mentor has to carry out; they must ensure that essential clinical skills are completed. To carry out a thorough assessment the mentor has to be sure what they want to measure and how measurement can be done, for example the mentor cannot asses most clinical skills by verbal communication alone, the mentoree must be observed in practice (perhaps asking patients if they thought their care was good). To be an effective mentor one must be able to evaluate which involves a number of skills, including observation, communication, confidence in ones own professional ability and knowledge. In the evaluation process the mentor must be able to identify problem areas partly by observing the mentorees practice and also by the mentorees self reports and assessment. It is also incumbent on the mentoree to identify failing students; this is crucial as patient safety could potentially be at risk if the mentor fails to spot a failing mentoree (RCN, 2007). There are a number of actions that a mentor can take to identify a struggling student; for example if a mentoree does not respond to constructive feedback and fails to incorporate improvements suggested by the mentor, if they are inconsistent in the clinical practice, high absence rate, or is unable to organize or plan their time adequately (Maloney et al., 1997). Duffy (2004), in her study of nurses in Scotland, found that all mentors highlighted the need for the topic of failing nurses to be addressed in mentorship programs. Duffy goes on and state that; the literature supports the view that mentors feel ill prepared for their role and given that mentors are ill prepared for their role in failing students it is recommended that mentorship programs address the issue of accountability (Duffy, 2004). The next section draws upon leadership styles to help the mentor. Any individual mentor will also have their own particular approach, Bayley et al (2004) list them as; authoritarian, as the name suggests, democratic, developmental, and task-orientated. The task-orientated approach, again as the name suggests, may be the most appropriate for a mentoree who has been identified largely as a pragmatist. The mentor should be able to understand and identify different learning styles and must adapt their own approach to mentoring to suit the needs of the mentoree. Moreover, the more contemporary styles from the leadership literature of transformative and transactional leadership styles can be applied to mentoring. The transformational leader (mentor) does not always lead from the front but tends to delegate responsibility amongst their team, they spend much of their time communicating and are highly visible and accessible (Bayley, Chambers Donovan, 2004). This leader tends to focus more on the needs of the members and their wants; they try to involve all members to work together. The transformational leader is quite similar to the democratic style as both leaders value fellow team members and focus on empowering nurses (Bayley, Chamber Donovan, 2004). Transformational leaders are inspirational and easily motivate those under their leadership (Aarons, 2006); they go above and beyond exchanges and rewards which are inherent in transactional leadership styles (see below). The transformational leadership style is said by some to be best suited to close supervisory relationships, compared with more distant relationships (Aarons, 2006) and this close relationship may be typical of a supervisor-supervisee relationship and is also captured in the notion of first-level leaders (Priestland, 2005). Mentors can be thought of as first level leaders as they are functionally close to the mentoree, in the organizational setting and because of that are vitally important, (Aarons, 2006). Mentors work closely with their mentoree, the RCN (2007) in t heir guidance for mentoring stipulates spending 40% of the time working and observing the mentoring. This leadership style would be good for the mentor mentoree relationship as the mentor is inspirational, positive and innovative; inspiring new, creative ideas and fosters an open honest learning relationship. This is a type of leadership that allows a person to step away from their comfort zone, promotes a high level of openness and innovation, is externally open in the hope of developing a high level of discovery and competence; they embrace deep change in order to obtain meaning, purpose and vision. The transformational leader (mentor) according to Aarons (2006) is a leader that works towards a goal in order for both members to benefit (Aarons, 2006). This style although appropriate for the needs of the mentor-mentored context perhaps could benefit from the some of the principles from the transactional leadership style outlined below. The transactional leadership is orientated towards satisfying subordinates self interest through suitable transactions in the work environment, (Aarons, 2006 ). There is a clear structure with this leadership style and Aarons (2006) comments on it as being a give and take technique. Rewards are given for work that is done, the work is set for the members and recognition is given when the task is completed; in this way it would be applicable to the mentor-mentored as mentoring should have a clear structure and achievement should be rewarded, however failure should not be punished but recognized and learned from . The transformational leader is similar to the autocratic style as there are clear set tasks within set time frames, the task is order to be done by the leader and the members will follow orders in assurance they will be rewarded. Aspects of the transactional leadership coupled with the innovative and open transformational style may be the most appropriate style; providing bot h motivation, inspiration and structure and security. The new nurse has just stepped from a secure environment of university and now has to be able to control what is happening within their new clinical setting. Whilst structure and security are important for the mentoree it is also important that they feel they are able to speak freely, honestly and openly to their mentor; for example the mentor should encourage the student to ask questions and speak openly and honestly about their views on the progress, and the mentor should give praise where it is due, as suggested in the RCN Toolkit (2007).The new or student, nurse need to feel secure within the ward; they are new to the role within the team and have a need to be perceived as confident in what they are doing. The mentor is also responsible for the professional socialization of a new nurse in the clinical setting (Bulman Schultz, 2008). The need to fit in must be balanced with the need to perform. Professional socialization is s een to be a process in which a person acquires a professional identity, and thereby is accepted by others in the profession (Bulman Schultz, 2008). Having support from their mentor is vitally important when making the transition from student to qualified nurse; their experiences can help to set aside any worries and issues that are felt by the new nurse. The mentoree is on a journey with a steep learning curve and it is the role of the mentor to help the them navigate the problems and challenges and help transform them into learning experiences, therefore the mentor should be able to identify learning opportunities which step from student to staff nurse is a journey that involves many problems and uncomfortable situations, though these problems are what help the student to learn and develop. The mentor is an integral part of the learning and orientating process of the new nurse, not only do they explicitly teach and inform but they also play a large part in the implicit learning process; for example positive role modeling and practice under supervision of the mentor helps the mentoree to develop the processes of integrating the knowledge with the conditions under which that knowledge applies and the culture in which that knowledge is used. A key skill required of students is that they learn to integrate into the culture and communiti es of practice (Eraut 2003). Mentoring, in an increasingly stretched national health service, is becoming more and more important; if done effectively it can instill confidence and competence it can also ensure that the mentored are comfortable with their identities and competencies leading to the retention of good nurses who contribute in the effort and emphasis of maintaining nursing excellence in practice (Godfrey, Nelson, Purdy, 2004).

The liberlization and privatization of the indian economy

The liberlization and privatization of the indian economy Rajiv Gandhis government initiated the policy of liberalization since mid-80s. The liberalization initiatives have been undertaken in India with a view to increase a production, improve quality and get access to market for products and service abroad. Radical liberalization or globalization measures have been brought in since July 1991 to make the Indian economy progressively market oriented and integrate it with the emerging global economy structure. These measures include reduction and rationalization of excise duty and customs duties, delicensing of several drug and pharmaceutical products, ready access to import of raw material and capital goods and so on. It has created an environment conducive to an enterprise, investment and innovation. Indian industries have started to attract foreign portfolio investment and equity participation in new ventures. The government is committed to make foreign players feet at ease to invest directly and bring with it new technology and marketing skills. There has been impressive growth in FDI inflows to India with the introduction of policy reforms. As compared to a near total concentration in manufacturing till 1991, the bulk of new inflow has come in the energy and service sector. Liberalization The New Industrial Policy, 1991 A number of significant economic changes introduced by many a number of countries all the world over, the encouraging results of the liberalization measures introduced in 1980s by the Government of India, and the precarious economic situation that prevailed during the later part 80s have encouraged and forced the then Congress government, which came back to power at the center, under the leadership of Shri. P. V. Narasimha Rao-a non Nehru family member, to take some bold measures to rejuvenate the economy and to accelerate the pace of development. In this background, the Government of India announced its New Industrial Policy (NIP or IP) on July 24, 1991. The important objectives are: (a) to correct the distortions that may have crept in, and consolidate the strengths built on the gains already made, (b) to maintain sustained growth in the productivity and gainful employment, and (c) to attain international competitiveness. Therefore, the basic philosophy of the New IP, 1991 has bee n the continuity with change. Because, the new policy represents a renewed initiative towards consolidating the gains of national reconstruction at this crucial stage. But what is more important is the change (in continuity with change)-change in the attitude of the state towards the industrial society, change from centrally planned economy to market led economy, change from excessive government intervention to minimal intervention, change from nationalization to privatization, change from subsidization and cross-subsidization to gradual withdrawal of subsidy, etc. But these changes, which the government has introduced, represent a sharp departure from the earlier industrial policies. These changes pertain broadly to five areas viz., (a) Industrial licensing, (b) Public sector policy, (c) MRTP Act, 1969, (d) Foreign investment, and (e) Foreign technology agreements. Industrial Licensing This is one of the areas in which substantial change has been made by the government. With a view to give effect to these changes, the government issued a notification [viz., Notification No. 477 (E)] on July 25, 1991 and this notification has exempted the industrial undertakings from the operation of the following Sections of Industries Development and Regulations Act, 1951 subject to the fulfillment of certain conditions. Section 10 (which deals with registration of existing industrial undertakings); Section 11 (which is concerned with the licensing for new industrial undertakings); and Section 13 (which is concerned with the licensing requirements for substantial expansion). Further, the second schedule appended to the notification cited above [viz., No. 477 (E)] lists the industries which are subject to mandatory industrial licensing. According to this notification, only 18 industries were subject to compulsory industrial licensing. Further, five more industries have been excluded from the list of industries which are subject to compulsory industrial licensing subsequently. That means, only 13 industries are now subject to compulsory industrial licensing. Public Sector Policy A large number of Public Sector Enterprises have failed to achieve at least a reasonable rate of success. Some of the factors which have contributed to this situation are over staffing and over managing, price and distributions controls, etc. Hence, the government, in its Industrial Policy, 1991, introduced the number of significant changes pertaining to the PSEs. Some of the important changes envisaged by the New Policy are summarized below. Prior to the announcement of New Industrial Policy, 1991, seventeen industries were reserved exclusively for the state for their future development. Further, with respect to another 12 industries, the state was to play an important role by taking initiative to establish new undertakings. Besides, the state had power to enter into any other area reserved for the private sector. However, the failure on the part of majority of PSEs has forced the government to review its earlier decision. Consequently, the government in its New Industrial Policy, 1991 has pruned the list of the industries reserved for the public sector to only 8. Further, the government has dereserved 2 more industries. As a result, only six industries are now reserved for the public sector. They are: (a) Arms and ammunition and allied items of defence equipment, aircraft and warships, (b) Atomic energy, (c) Coal and lignite, (d) Mineral oils, (e) Minerals specified in the schedule to the Atomic Energy Order, 1953, and (f) Railway transport. Hence, the focus of the public sector will be only on strategic and high tech industries and on basic infrastructural projects. However the objective of the New Industrial Policy has been to withdraw the public sector investment from the activities which can successfully be taken up by the private sector enterprises. The emphasis of PSEs in future will be on: (a) Basic and essential infrastructural facilities, (b) Mineral resources, (c) Crucial areas in the interest of the economy in the long run and where the private sector investment is inadequate, and (d) Defence equipment. With a view to mobilize the resources and to have a wider public participation, apart of governments share holdings in its enterprises will be offered to the mutual funds, financial institutions, employs of PSEs, and the general public. The New Industrial Policy also proposes selective privatization of PSEs. Further, the policy also proposes to close down the PSEs which have become sick and which cannot be rehabilitated. The sick PSEs which can be revived will be refered to Board for Industrial and Financial Reconstruction for the formulation of revival packages. The New Industrial Policy also aims at providing greater operational and managerial autonomy to the management of PSEs and making the managements accountable for the performance through a system called Memorandum of Understanding. MRTP Act, 1969 The New Industrial Policy, 1991 proposes to amend suitably the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969. To remove the threshold limits of assets in respect of MRTP companies and the dominant industrial undertakings. The important objectives of this were two in number. They are: Prevention of concentration of economic power in the hands of few which will be detrimental to the common interest; and Regulation of monopolistic, restrictive and unfair trade practices which are pursued by the business community and which are prejudicial to the public interest. The New Policy proposes to renew the threshold limits of assets and therefore, to repeal the Provisions of MRTP Act, 1969 pertaining to the first objective. Hence, the MRTP Act now concerned only with the prohibition of monopolistic, restrictive and unfair trade practices followed by the industrial undertakings and the trading communities. Foreign Investment As far as the direct foreign investment is concerned, the New Policy proposes to give automatic approval up to 51% of equity in the case of high priority industries and it has also identified 34 such industry groups. Further, the policy proposes to allow majority foreign equity holdings up to 51% of equity for the trading companies which are engaged in export activities. This is to enable the domestic companies an easy access to international markets. With a view to negotiate with the large international financial institutions and to approve the direct foreign investments proposals in selected areas, the New Policy proposes to constitute a special committee. Foreign Technology Agreements The New Industrial Policy proposes to give automatic permission for foreign technology agreements in identified high priority industries. Further, it also proposes to allow other industries to import foreign technology subject to the fulfillment of certain conditions. Conclusion The New Industrial Policy, 1991 certainly differs significantly from the earlier philosophies, approaches, etc. of the government. For instance, prior to 1991, scope of public sector was expanded by reserving more number of industries for the public sector. But now, its scope has been reduced drastically by reducing the number of industries reserved for the public sector. Like this, a large number of changes can be noticed in the new policy. This process has been continuing even in post liberalization era. Adding to this, the government has taken a number of steps to give effect to its policy decisions included in the New Industrial Policy, 1991. Though the economy has been benefited significantly from these measures, the economy has not been able to reap the full benefits of the Economic Reform Package owing to the political instability, etc. Privatization Privatization of PSUs Majority of the industrial enterprises in the public sector have failed to achieve the desired result. Of course, a number of factors-internal and external, controllable and non- controllable are responsible for his precarious performance. A look at the history of public sector undertakings (PSUs) in the country reveals the continuous expansion in the role of PSUs. Consequently, a number of enterprises have been established and huge amount of borrowed capital has been employed by the state even in the non-core, non-strategic and not so essential area. Hence, the state has made a number of changes in its New Industrial Policy announced on July 24, 1991. Introduction In the sixties and seventies, the public sector policy has been largely guided by Industrial Policy Resolution, 1956 which gave the public sector a strategic role in the economy. During the last four decades, massive investments have been made to build a public sector which has a commanding role in the economy. Today, many key sector of the economy are dominated by the mature public sector enterprises that have successfully expanded the production. In the early post-Independence years, there was virtual consensus about the need for the government intervention in economic activities. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru described the public sector as Temples of Modern India. At that time, virtually neither questioned the strategy nor raised any doubts about its implementation. The number of central public sector enterprises increased from 5 in the year 1951 to 240 by the end of 1995 and investments in public sector undertakings (PSUs) increased from Rs29 crore in 1951 to Rs. 1,72,438 crore by the end of 1995. They contributed nearly one third of our exports. They made significant contribution to import substitution. Government undertakings account for more that 70% of the work force employed in the organized sector. They have greatly reduced the imbalanced of regional development and have laid strong base for the rapid development of the country. Some of the PSUs have earned a reputation par excellence at the international level. Some giant public sector units (e.g., Indian Oil Corporation, Steel Authority of India, Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd., Coal India Ltd and Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd) figure in Fortune Internationals large companies. Further, the public sector accounts for one-fourth of the countrys GDP. There are two million employees in government undertakings and the average emoluments per annum amount to more than Rs.50, 000 each. Besides paying higher salaries, public enterprises assure job security, good working condition, attractive incentive scheme, participative management, higher degree of safety, adequate facilities, etc. Meaning of Privatisation The revolution of privatization started in 1980 and spread to many parts of the world. Several countries are privatizing their public sector enterprises. India is no exception to it. Privatization was meant to improve the performance of public enterprises. Privatization techniques have been tried in countries like Great Britain, China, US, Turkey, Brazil, Mexico, Japan, etc. Privatization, in the narrow sense, means transfer of ownership, or sale of public enterprises. However, privatization has been used in different ways as detailed below: Liberalization Approach: Privatization may be used in the sense of liberalization having fewer controls and regulation by the state in economic activities. This also means slowing of new controls and regulations and also dismantling of the existing controls and regulations. Relative Share Enlargement Approach: Privatization may relate to enlargement of the share of private enterprises in the production of goods and services in the economy. This means that faster economic expansion of goods and services produced by private sector and slowing down of production of goods and services in the public sector. Association of Private Sector Management Approach: This approach suggests utilizing the services of managerial personnel or executives of private sector enterprises for the conduct and management of PSUs. Transfer of Minority Equity Ownership Approach: Privatization may be defined as the transfer of minority equity ownership of public enterprises to private individuals and institutions so that the ultimate control continues to remain with the state. Transfer of Complete Ownership Approach: Privatization is also used in the sense of sale of all the shares to the private parties so that the public enterprises are converted into private enterprises. In India, privatization is taking place by adopting two common methods viz., (a) Having fewer controls and regulations by the state in economic activities, and (b) Transferring ownership of state equity in PSUs to private individuals and institutions. Benefits of Privatization It is expected that privatization will ensure the following benefits: Increasing overall efficiency: Improvement in the quality of management and decision making: No government financial backing, and therefore, capital market will compel these enterprises to be more efficient; Substantial reduction in governments budgetary support resulting in reduction in budgetary deficit; Recovery of government fund which could more productively be used in development activities; Reduction in political and bureaucratic interferences; Better industrial relations management; etc. Shortcomings Though the PSUs have contributed heavily to develop the industrial base of the country, they continue, even today, to suffer from a number of shortcomings which are identified below very briefly. A sizable number of PSUs have been incurring and reporting losses on a continual basis. Consequently, a large number of PSUs have already been referred of BIFR; Multiplicity of authorities to whom the PSUs are accountable; Delay in implementation of projects leading to cost escalation and other consequences; Ineffective and widespread inefficiency on management; Many PSUs are operating without the leader (i.e., chief executive or chairman); With a view to provide opportunities for more and more unemployed youths, more number of people, than required, were recruited and therefore, many PSUs are over-staffed resulting in lower labour productivity, bad industrial relations, etc.; un-remunerative pricing policy; and A number of sick companies (40 companies) which were in the private sector was taken over by public sector mainly to protect the employees. These sick units are causing a big drain on the resources of the state; etc. Methods of Privatization There are four important modes of privatization. They are: Franchising, (b) Contracting, (c) Leasing, and (d) Disinvestment. In India, disinvestment of government share of equity in PSUs is predominant. It started in 1992 immediately after the New Economic Policy in a phased manner. The main criticism of disinvestment of shares of PSUs in India is that it has been partial and half-hearted. There seems to be no plans to disinvest completely. The government still would like to keep a dominant control. 39 companies have been proposed for disinvestment till 1995-96. All the companies proposed for disinvestment are central PSUs. No state level PSU has been proposed for disinvestment. It could only disinvest 1% to 35% shares of PSUs on an average. It is also observed that the shares of efficient and profit-making companies are disinvested more than the companies which are potentially sick or sick companies. The disinvestment percentage is also not much in loss-making and inefficient units, thereby defeating the purpose. The Finance Ministry has also explained that the government is consciously not off-loading larger chunks of its holding. The Rangarajan Committee has suggested that government holding in public sector undertaking must be less than 50%. But partial disinvestment will be of no avail to change the culture in the public sector undertaking. Future Plans of Government The following are the future plans of government: Strengthening strategic units, Privatizing non-strategic units by (1) Gradual disinvestment, and (2) Strategic sale, and Devising suitable rehabilitation package for weak units. Conclusion The privatization process launched with all seriousness after the announcement of New Industrial Policy, 1991 was a failure. The state must accept this and take necessary steps either to privatize or to improve the efficiency and performance of PSUs. GLOBALISATION Introduction: The expansion of economic activities across political boundaries of nation states. More important, perhaps, it refers to a process of increasing economic integrated and growing economic interdependence between countries in the world economy. It is associated not only with an increasing cross- border movement of goods, services, capital technology information and people but also with an organization of economic activities which straddles national boundaries. This process is driven by the lure of profit and threat of competition in the market. The term Globalization as such denotes adjustment of national economy with that of the world economy. It is conversion of a national market into international mobility of factors of production. In others words, it may be described as the integration of national economy with that of global economy. An important attribute of Globalization is the increasing degree of openness, which has three dimensions, i.e.; international trade, international investment and international finance. According to World Development Report, Globalization reflects the progressive integration of worlds economies. The manifestation of production includes spatial reorganization of production the interpenetration of industries across borders, the spread of financial markets, and the diffusion of identical consumer goods to distant countries and massive transfer of population across national frontiers. Globalization is a process of reaffirmation of faith in the markets, retaining the character of independence of a country. Here, the country follows a pragmatic policy with a shift in decision making from government to business. The market forces and the laws of economics will have greater importance than the political ideology. To make a country a successful partner in Globalization, the government must play a complimentary role. Factors contributing to Globalization: The important factors that contribute to Globalization are: (a) Technological Advances In communication: Technological advances in communication have made it possible to know in an instant what is happening in different parts of the world. The flow of information and ideas, boosted greatly by the Internet, can enable developing countries to learn more rapidly from each other and from industrial countries. (b) Improvements In Transportation And Technology: Improvements in transportation networks and technology are reducing the costs of shipping goods by water, ground and air. This can facilitate the movements of goods. Technological improvements can enable developing countries to leap stages in the development process that rely on inefficient uses of national resources. (c) Other Factors: Rising educational levels, technological innovations that allow ideas to circulate, and the economic failures of most centrally planned economies have also contributed to Globalization. Trends in Globalization: The important trends in Globalization are the following: International Trade: Trade in goods and services has grown twice as fast as global GDP in the 1990s and the share attributable to developing countries has risen from 23 to 29 percent. There is a compositional shift in trade, which has created a new pattern in the international exchange of goods, services, and ideas. Trade in components is one part of that new pattern. Advances in information technology helps to link firms from developing countries into global production networks. The tremendous growth of trade in services and, more recently, of electronic commerce is also a part of the new trade pattern. (b) International Financial Flows: There has been increase in international capital flows of developing countries. However, the financial crisis of 1977-99 have put the growing interdependencies among countries in the spotlight and led to intense scrutiny. Such flows are started to rise again. The financial performance of emerging markets in the 1990s made capital account liberalization an attractive option for developing countries. Many developing countries have began to loosen controls on inflows and outflows of capital. The East Asian meltdown has enhanced the attractiveness of long-term capital investment. Countries have started to recognize that foreign direct investment brings with it not only capital but also technology market access and organizational skills. An analysis of the period 1996-97 shows that foreign direct investment was less volatile than the commercial bank loans and foreign portfolio flows. (c) International Migration: Along with goods, services, and investment, people are crossing borders in large numbers. According to World Development Report 1999-2000, each tear between 2 million and 3 million people emigrate, with majority of them going to just 4 countries: the United States, Germany, Canada and Australia. The market for highly skilled workers will become even more globally integrated in the coming decades. At the end of the 20th century Globalization has already demonstrated that economic decisions, wherever they are made in the world, must take international factors into account. There is acceleration of goods, services, ideas and capital across nation borders. Advantages of Globalization: (a) Promise of Increase Productivity And Higher Living Standards: Globalization brings in new opportunities such as access to markets and technology transfer. These opportunities hold out the promise of increased productivity and higher living standards. (b) Increase In Trade In Goods And Services: There is tremendous growth in trade in goods and services. Trade in goods and services has grown twice as fast as global GDP in the 1990s and the share attributable to developing countries has climbed from 230to 29 percent. Increased international competition in services will lead to reduction in prices and improvements in quality. This will increase the competitiveness of downstream industries. Both industrial and development economics will gain by opening their markets. (c) Provide New Opportunities For Growth: For developing countries, trade is the primary vehicle for realizing the benefits of Globalization. Imports bring additional competition and variety to domestic markets, which benefit consumers. Exports, on the other hand, enlarge foreign markets and benefit business. Further trade exposes domestic firms to the best practices of foreign firms and encourages greater efficiency. Trade gives forms access to improved capital inputs such as machine tools, which boosts productivity. Trade encourages the redistribution of labour and capital too relatively to more productive sectors. It has contributed to the ongoing shift of some manufacturing and services activities from industrial to developing countries, providing new opportunities for growth. (d) Globalization of Financial Markets: Globalization of finance markets affects development because finance plays an important role in economic growth and industrialization. Financial Globalization affects growth in two ways. First, it increases the global supply of capital. Second, it promotes domestic financial development and hence, improves allocative efficiency, creates new financial instruments, and raises the quality of baking services. (e) Increased Flow Of foreign Market Capital: Globalization leads to increased flows of capital across countries. Flows of foreign capital offer substantial economic gains to all parties. Foreign investors diversify their risks outside their home market and gain access to profitable opportunities through out the world. Economies receiving inflows raise the level of investment. When there is foreign investment it is generally accompanied by management expertise, training programs and important linkages to suppliers and international markets. (f) Impact on Poverty: The fast growth and overall development resulting from liberalization, increased flow of trade ad capital could have a major impact on poverty. It is likely to reduce the number of people living in absolute poverty. (g) Increase The Level Of Interdependence And Competitiveness: Globalization is supposed to accelerate and increase the level of interdependence and competitiveness among nation. It is a change from plan to market. As a consequence, markets for merchandise trade are expanding, more and more service are being traded internationally, and capital is flowing in quicker and increasingly diverse ways across countries and regions. There is increasing integration of countries into World markets for goods, services and capital. In short, Globalization widens and intensifies international linkages in trade and finance. (h) Induce Domestic Firms To Improve Technology: The better technology brought in by the MNCs may induce or provoke the domestic firms to absorb similar technology. This may improve their competitiveness and expansion. Disadvantages of Globalization: The universal acceptance of the market economy and the Globalization led by private enterprises tend to have some harmful effects on the economy of developing countries. They are discussed below: Takeover of National Firms: There are a large numbers of cases of takeover of national firms by foreign firms. In some cases, the domestic firms had to handover the majority of equity to foreign partners of joint ventures due to their inability to bring in additional capital. Ruin of Traditional Crafts And Industries: Globalization has lead to replacement of traditional and indigenous products by modern products. This has resulted in the ruin of traditional crafts and industries and the livelihood of the people depended on these sectors. Brings Instability: Globalization sometimes brings instability and unwelcome change in the economy. It exposes workers to competition from imports, which can threaten their jobs. The inflow of foreign capital into the country through Globalization may undermine banks. (d) Widens The Disparity: Globalization will widen the disparity between one who are associated with market and one who are not. With the expansion of trade and foreign investment, the gaps among the developing countries will widen .it has brought in increased income inequality in many industrial countries .it is argued that the developing countries and the poor people are not in a position of achieving benefits from Globalization. The only beneficiaries of it are the developed countries and the MNCs. Growth rate of Indias real GDP per capita Per Capita GDP of South Asian Economies. Estimates of the Per Capita Income of India. CONCLUSION: Economic liberalization has increased the responsibility and role of the private sector. At the same time, it has reduced the control of the government on economy affairs. It is expected that the reforms would liberalize the Indian economy enough to create a conducive environment for rapid economic development. The Ninth Five Year Plan, therefore, rightly observed, The conditions that exist today, demand a decisive break from the past. The government has taken on itself too many responsibilities with the result that it not only encouraged a dependency syndrome among our people, but also imposed severe strains on financial and administrative capabilities of the government. Private initiative whether individual, collective or community-based forms the essence of the development strategy articulated in the plan. The process of reforms according to many economists and social scientists is not fast enough to achieve the goals. Jeffrey Sachs, director of Harvard Universitys center for international development and a noted economist, pointed out that the reform process in India had a long way to go. He feels that without a focus on the twin pillars of social and economic strategies, the future would be bleak for India, especially in the context of competition all around. Liberalization process is on the slow track. Government is expected to reduce and finally give up its involvement in economic matters and play a major role in providing the required socio-economic infrastructure. The government, however, is reluctant to give up its role of owning and controlling economic activities. At the same time its inability to spend for providing minimum health and education services. It is eager to spend on higher education without spending enough on primary and secondary education. It has failed in providing a corruption free administration, an essential precondition for increasing com

The Deal :: Personal Narrative Writing

The Deal We had a deal, Ada and me. We decided that, since neither of us expected to live forever or get out of this existence alive, which ever one didn't die first would spend the funeral of the one who made it out first telling bad jokes. This wasn't going to win either of us any friends among the family or gathered mourners but we didn't care. In our rather humble opinions people took death far, far too seriously anyway. As I told Ada many times, â€Å"having been dead once, the whole experience is highly overrated.† And she agreed, having been dead once before herself. There were no bright lights, no family waiting, nothing to make the entire experience one worth revisiting, but as death was as inevitable as taxes, we both realized that the next time would probably be the time we got our exit visas from this cycle of reality stamped, and soundly. Now, I feel I need to explain a couple of things before we go much further. Ada is, rather was, my grandmother. A â€Å"southern lady† of the old school, she could achieve more with a raised eyebrow than a raised voice. No one in the family wanted to see that look of disappointment on her lovely little face so we all strove to make life as easy on her as possible. Her husband, my late grandfather, had been saddled by his parents with the name William Homer. He had once been a star athlete in high school and had won awards in every single sport offered in their little hometown. Baseball, football, basketball, you name it, he played it, he mastered it, he made it his own. And it didn't get any better when he became an adult. Just more intense. Homer had boxes of trophies in closets all over their house, racks of them displayed prominently by the most current achievements and their position of honor was ranked by the difficulty of the task. Any flat surface that would hold some shiny bit of bric-a-brac that had his name on it and some amazing feet of athletic achievement he had conquered was coated in a heavy furniture wax and summarily crowded in with the little men holding golf clubs, bowling balls, olive laurels or just simply their own hands over their heads. The Deal :: Personal Narrative Writing The Deal We had a deal, Ada and me. We decided that, since neither of us expected to live forever or get out of this existence alive, which ever one didn't die first would spend the funeral of the one who made it out first telling bad jokes. This wasn't going to win either of us any friends among the family or gathered mourners but we didn't care. In our rather humble opinions people took death far, far too seriously anyway. As I told Ada many times, â€Å"having been dead once, the whole experience is highly overrated.† And she agreed, having been dead once before herself. There were no bright lights, no family waiting, nothing to make the entire experience one worth revisiting, but as death was as inevitable as taxes, we both realized that the next time would probably be the time we got our exit visas from this cycle of reality stamped, and soundly. Now, I feel I need to explain a couple of things before we go much further. Ada is, rather was, my grandmother. A â€Å"southern lady† of the old school, she could achieve more with a raised eyebrow than a raised voice. No one in the family wanted to see that look of disappointment on her lovely little face so we all strove to make life as easy on her as possible. Her husband, my late grandfather, had been saddled by his parents with the name William Homer. He had once been a star athlete in high school and had won awards in every single sport offered in their little hometown. Baseball, football, basketball, you name it, he played it, he mastered it, he made it his own. And it didn't get any better when he became an adult. Just more intense. Homer had boxes of trophies in closets all over their house, racks of them displayed prominently by the most current achievements and their position of honor was ranked by the difficulty of the task. Any flat surface that would hold some shiny bit of bric-a-brac that had his name on it and some amazing feet of athletic achievement he had conquered was coated in a heavy furniture wax and summarily crowded in with the little men holding golf clubs, bowling balls, olive laurels or just simply their own hands over their heads.